Cheek v. United States, 498 U.S. 192 (1991), was a case in which the United States Supreme Court The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest judicial body in the United States, and leads the federal judiciary. It consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight Associate Justices, who are nominated by the President and confirmed with the "advice and consent" of the Senate. Once appointed, Justices effectively held that a tax protester's A tax protester is someone who refuses to pay a tax on constitutional or legal grounds. Many claim the tax laws are unconstitutional or otherwise invalid. Some refuse to file a tax return or file returns with no income or tax data supplied. Legal commentator Daniel B. Evans has defined tax protesters as people who "refuse to pay taxes or file belief that he was not violating the Federal tax law based on a misunderstanding caused by the complexity of the tax law itself—if a genuine, good faith, actually held belief—would be a valid defense to charges of tax evasion, willful failure to timely file income tax returns, and willful failure to timely pay taxes, even though that belief is irrational or unreasonable. The Court also ruled that a belief that the tax law is invalid or unconstitutional is not based on a misunderstanding caused by the complexity of the tax law, and is not a defense.
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Facts
The defendant A defendant or defender is any party who is required to answer the complaint of a plaintiff or pursuer in a civil lawsuit before a court, or any party who has been formally charged or accused of violating a criminal statute. (Note that American lawyers and judges often pronounce the word slightly differently than is common in standard American, John L. Cheek, became a pilot for American Airlines American Airlines, Inc. is a major airline of the United States and is the world's second largest airline in passenger miles transported, passenger fleet size, and operating revenues. American Airlines is a subsidiary of the AMR Corporation and is headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, adjacent to its largest hub at Dallas/Fort Worth International in 1973. Through the tax year 1979, Cheek filed Federal income tax returns. Beginning with the 1980 tax year, Cheek stopped filing Federal income tax returns. He began claiming up to sixty allowances on his Form W-4 withholding statement submitted to his employer.
Cheek was eventually charged with six counts of willfully failing to file Federal income tax returns under 26 U.S.C. The Internal Revenue Code is the main body of domestic statutory tax law of the United States organized topically, including laws covering the income tax (see Income tax in the United States), payroll taxes, gift taxes, estate taxes and statutory excise taxes. The Internal Revenue Code is published as Title 26 of the United States Code (USC), and § 7203 for 1980, 1981, 1983, 1984, 1985 and 1986. He was also charged with tax evasion under 26 U.S.C. The Internal Revenue Code is the main body of domestic statutory tax law of the United States organized topically, including laws covering the income tax (see Income tax in the United States), payroll taxes, gift taxes, estate taxes and statutory excise taxes. The Internal Revenue Code is published as Title 26 of the United States Code (USC), and § 7201 for years 1980, 1981, and 1983.[1]
Between 1982 and 1986, John Cheek was also involved in at least four civil cases challenging the Federal income tax.[2] Among the arguments In logic, an argument is a set of one or more meaningful declarative sentences known as the premises along with another meaningful declarative sentence (or "proposition") known as the conclusion. A deductive argument asserts that the truth of the conclusion is a logical consequence of the premises; an inductive argument asserts that the raised in those cases were: (1) the argument that he was not a taxpayer within the meaning of the law; (2) the argument that wages are not income; (3) the argument that the Sixteenth Amendment The Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution allows the Congress to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states or basing it on Census results. This amendment exempted income taxes from the constitutional requirements regarding direct taxes, after income taxes on rents, dividends, and interest were ruled to be direct does not authorize an income tax on individuals; and (4) the argument that the Sixteenth Amendment is unenforceable. In all four cases, the courts stated that these arguments were erroneous. Cheek also attended two criminal trials of individuals charged with tax crimes.[3]
At his own criminal trial, John Cheek represented himself.[4] He also testified that around 1978 he had begun attending seminars conducted by a group that believed that the Federal income tax system was unconstitutional. Cheek stated that based on the seminars and his own study, he sincerely believed that the tax laws were being unconstitutionally enforced, and that his actions were lawful. Cheek specifically testified about his own interpretations of the U.S. Constitution, court opinions, common law and other materials. He testified that he had relied on those materials in concluding that he was not required to file tax returns, that he was not required to pay income taxes, and that he could claim refunds of the money withheld from his pay. Cheek also contended that his wages from a private employer (American Airlines) did not constitute income under the internal revenue laws. Cheek argued that he therefore had acted without the "willfulness" that was required for a criminal tax conviction.[5]
The erroneous jury instructions
During the jury deliberations, the jury asked the trial judge for a clarification on the law. The judge instructed the jury that an "honest but unreasonable belief is not a defense, and does not negate willfulness." The trial court also instructed the jury that "[a]dvice or research resulting in the conclusion that wages of a privately employed person are not income or that the tax laws are unconstitutional is not objectively reasonable, and cannot serve as the basis for a good faith misunderstanding of the law defense."[6]
Procedural history
John Cheek was convicted, and the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit upheld the conviction. Cheek was granted a hearing by the United States Supreme Court. Cheek contended that the trial court had erred by instructing the jury that a misunderstanding of the law had to be objectively reasonable to negate willfulness.
Discussion
Under U.S. criminal law, the general rule is that ignorance of the law or a mistake of law is not a valid defense to criminal prosecution[7] (see also Ignorantia juris non excusat The rationale of the doctrine is that if ignorance were an excuse, a person charged with criminal offenses or a subject of a civil lawsuit would merely claim that he or she is unaware of the law in question to avoid liability, even though the person really does know what the law in question is. Thus, the law imputes knowledge of all laws to all). However, there are exceptions to that rule. Some U.S. criminal statutes provide for what are known as "specific intent" crimes, where ignorance of the law may be a valid defense. The criminal tax statutes in the Cheek case are examples of statutes for specific intent crimes, where actual ignorance of the law is a valid defense.[8]
Holdings
The two essential holdings of the Supreme Court were:
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- A genuine, good faith belief that one is not violating the Federal tax law based on a misunderstanding caused by the complexity of the tax law (e.g., the complexity of the statute itself) is a defense to a charge of "willfulness", even though that belief is irrational or unreasonable.[9]
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- A belief that the Federal income tax is unconstitutional is not a misunderstanding caused by the complexity of the tax law, and is not a defense to a charge of "willfulness", even if that belief is genuine and is held in good faith.[10]
Rationale
The Supreme Court distinguished arguments about constitutionality from statutory arguments about the law. The Court, in an opinion by Justice White Byron Raymond "Whizzer" White won fame both as a football running back and as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Appointed to the court by President John F. Kennedy in 1962, he served until his retirement in 1993. He was married to Marion Lloyd Stearns in 1946 and the father of two children, Charles (Barney), ruled that the defendant's belief that the tax laws were unconstitutional was not a defense, no matter how honestly that belief might have been held. To the contrary, Cheek's acknowledgement that his failure to file tax returns was based on a belief about constitutionality was viewed by the Supreme Court as possible evidence of (1) Cheek's awareness of the tax law itself (the Court stating that constitutional arguments reveal the taxpayer's "full knowledge of the provisions at issue and a studied conclusion, however wrong, that those provisions are invalid and unenforceable",[11]) and (2) of the voluntary, intentional violation of a known legal duty imposed by the tax law.
However, John Cheek's statutory argument—his asserted belief that his wages were not income under the statute (the Internal Revenue Code itself)—was ruled by the Supreme Court to be a possible ground for a valid defense even though that belief was not objectively reasonable, provided that the belief was actually held in good faith. The Supreme Court ruled that by instructing the jury that the defendant's statutory argument had to be based on a belief that was "objectively reasonable," the trial judge had erroneously transformed what should have been treated as a factual issue (for the jury to decide) into a legal issue. The Supreme Court stated that whether the defendant acted willfully is a factual issue to be determined by the jury, and that a valid defense of lack of willfulness could be found even though the defendant's belief is not "objectively reasonable." The Supreme Court remanded the case to the trial court for a retrial.
Dissent
Justices Harry Blackmun and Thurgood Marshall agreed with the Court's ruling that a belief that the Federal income tax is unconstitutional is not a defense to a charge of willfulness. These two justices complained, however, about the Court's ruling that a genuine, good faith belief based on a misunderstanding of the Internal Revenue Code is a valid defense. In dissent, Justice Blackmun wrote:
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- It seems to me that we are concerned in this case not with "the complexity of the tax laws," ante, at 200, but with the income tax law in its most elementary and basic aspect: Is a wage earner a taxpayer and are wages income? [ . . . ] [I]t is incomprehensible to me how, in this day, more than 70 years after the institution of our present federal income tax system with the passage of the Revenue Act of 1913 The United States Revenue Act of 1913 also known as the Tariff Act, Underwood Tariff, Underwood Tariff Act, or Underwood-Simmons Act , re-imposed the federal income tax following the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment and lowered basic tariff rates from 40% to 25%, well below the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act of 1909. It was signed into law by, 38 Stat. 166, any taxpayer of competent mentality can assert as his defense to charges of statutory willfulness the proposition that the wage he receives for his labor is not income, irrespective of a cult that says otherwise and advises the gullible to resist income tax collections. One might note in passing that this particular taxpayer, after all, was a licensed pilot for one of our major commercial airlines; he presumably was a person of at least minimum intellectual competence.
Later developments
Some tax protesters have cited this case for the argument that it is possible to avoid paying taxes without punishment by using the kind of defense raised by Cheek about a good faith misunderstanding of the tax law itself. The Cheek defense is available, however, only in a criminal trial, and not as a method to avoid the payment of tax.
In the case of John Cheek:
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- The 48-year-old airline pilot said in a telephone interview that he had changed his views about paying taxes and was now "straightened out with the I.R.S." after paying the money he owed the Government and "substantial" penalties. From now on, he said, he intended to pay taxes.[12]
Further, the case was remanded for a re-trial. In the re-trial, the jury rejected Mr. Cheek's argument that he actually "believed" that wages were not taxable. He was again convicted. The second conviction was upheld by the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit The court is based at the Dirksen Federal Building in Chicago, Illinois. It is one of thirteen United States courts of appeals, composed of eleven judges, and the United States Supreme Court let that decision stand by denying review.[13] John L. Cheek was sentenced to a year and a day in prison, and was released from prison in December 1992.[14]
See also
- List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 498 This is a list of all the United States Supreme Court cases from volume 498 of the United States Reports:
- List of United States Supreme Court cases
- Lists of United States Supreme Court cases by volume
- List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court
Notes
- ^ Cheek v. United States, 498 U.S. 192 at 194 (1991) (hereinafter Cheek).
- ^ See, e.g., Schaut v. United States, 585 F. Supp. 137, 84-1 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 9308 (N.D. Ill. 1984) and Cheek v. Doe, 110 F.R.D. 420, 421 (N.D. Ill. 1984).
- ^ Cheek, 498 U.S. at 194-95.
- ^ Cheek, 498 U.S. at 195.
- ^ Cheek, 498 U.S. at 195-96.
- ^ Cheek, 498 U.S. at 197.
- ^ Cheek, 498 U.S. at 199.
- ^ Cheek, 498 U.S. at 200.
- ^ Cheek, 498 U.S. at 203.
- ^ Cheek, 498 U.S. at 206. John Cheek's arguments about the constitutionality of the tax law in various prior court cases were expressly labeled "frivolous" by the Supreme Court. See Cheek, 498 U.S. at 204-205. For example, John Cheek had specifically contended prior to his conviction that the Sixteenth Amendment did not authorize a tax on wages and salaries, but only on gain or profit. See Cheek, 498 U.S. at 196.
- ^ Cheek, 498 U.S. at 205.
- ^ Linda Greenhouse, "Supreme Court Ruling Supports Tax Protester", Jan. 9, 1991, New York Times, at [1].
- ^ United States v. Cheek, 3 F.3d 1057, 93-2 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 50,473 (7th Cir. 1993), cert. denied, 510 U.S. 1112, 114 S. Ct. 1055 (1994).
- ^ John L. Cheek, prisoner number 96657-024, Federal Bureau of Prisons The Federal Bureau of Prisons is a federal law enforcement agency subdivision of the United States Department of Justice and is responsible for the administration of the federal prison system, United States Department of Justice The United States Department of Justice , is the United States federal executive department responsible for the enforcement of the law and administration of justice, equivalent to the justice or interior ministries of other countries, at[2].
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